Culinary Goodness of Caribbean Fusion
The streets and alleys of New York are lined with ethnic restaurants. There are so many different options to chose from that visitors and residents can enjoy cuisine from a different country or culture almost every night of the year. Some of these food offerings are strictly associated with one particular country or ethnicity and others are a fusion of the various cultures that have colonized an area and crops that were introduced by new inhabitants . Caribbean cuisine is an example of an identifiable ethnic culinary offering, but if examined closer there is evidence of a number of European flavors and ingredient influences. Solnit’s article “Archipelago” in Nonstop Metropolis a New York City Atlas looks at the influence of the Caribbean culture and cuisine in New York CIty. This article is particularly interesting because the Caribbean community in the city includes people from a number of different islands with often different cultural traditions, but when living off their original islands, the people identify themselves as just “Caribbean” ( Solnit 77 ). This adds a whole new dimension to the fusion of tastes in what is termed “Caribbean food. “ This dynamic is similar to the term “African food.” There are many cultural traditions that combine to form the food identified with Africa. What is particularly interesting about Caribbean cuisine is that as it reflects the fusion of many different cultures and it also mirrors the multi-national ethnic mix of the population of immigrant New York.There are many different cultures and communities that have come together to create the culinary goodness of New York’s Caribbean "fusion" food and this tradition has impacted New York in many ways.
The Caribbean covers 1.06 million square miles and ranges between North and South America.The Caribbean Islands make up an enormous archipelago located in the Caribbean Sea separated into a few different regions: the Lucayan Archipelago, the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles and the ABC Islands. There are thirteen sovereign states and seventeen dependent territories within this region. Each island and region is distinct from the others and the populations and traditions do not mix very much while the people tend to live on their own home territories. The islands have been fought over and occupied by several European countries and each of these has contributed to the culture and cuisine of the Caribbean. There are a variety of European languages spoken by the populations of the various islands; English, Spanish, French, Dutch and Antillean creole are the predominant languages. ( Food and Wine)
Caribbean culture and cuisine has been incorporated and embraced into the the lives of the people of New York City, and Caribbean culture has historically been influenced by that of African, European, and Amerindian, and Asian traditions. It has also been strongly influenced linguistically, economically, and culturally by its neighboring country the United States, and visa versa ; indeed New York City and Florida have been affected by the Caribbean culture dramatically. There are over 22 million Caribbeans in the United States and New York City ‘s population is 25% Caribbean with 5 million from the islands in the New York city area ( Impact) Caribbean people are more socio-economically mobile than almost any other immigrant group in the US ( Impact). They also have an interest in entrepreneurship which is greater than any other immigrant people( Impact). Caribbean culture in the United States is seen in music, literature culinary cuisine, politics and social events; all of which are representative of the Caribbean people in powerful ways. A great example of political involvement is seen in Shirley Chisholm and Colin Powell. In the entertainment world Harry Belafonte and Sidney Poitier are well known entertainers. The Civil Rights Movement had help from influential people such as Marcus Garvey, Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael) ( Wilson 301). Caribbean cuisine made its way into mainstream companies like Golden Krust and Caribbean Food Delights which are million dollar companies ( Wilson 295). Scattered all over the city are Caribbean restaurants which are very popular. The multicultural and multiethnic backgrounds have not been a deterrent to being a visible force in most aspects of New York and United States society.
There have been multinational contributions throughout history to what is now considered Caribbean cuisine. The islands have been fought over and colonized by several European countries and each new culture added their culinary traditions to form what we know as Caribbean cuisine ( Impact). The foods and spices of the 7,000 Caribbean islands represent a melting pot of cultures and cooking methods. Many foods and spices associated with the region were actually introduced hundreds of years ago by explorers from Spain, France England, Africa China and India,. ( The Caribbean Current) First, native inhabitants of the Caribbean Islands can be traced back to 650 AD ( Pimento)The Native inhabitants were primarily the Arawaks who inhabited Dominica, Jamaica and the Orinoco River Valley, the Tainos who resided on Haiti and Puerto Rico, and the Caribs who lived on several neighboring islands. Many of the ingredients used in Caribbean cuisine are both native to the islands and imported by the various cultures which invaded the area. Native to the islands were chili peppers to spice their food and taro root, corn, yams, cassava and peanuts ( Food and Wine). Guavas, pineapple, black-eye peas and lima beans grew wild ( Food and Wine). Arawaks began the technique of barbecue, giving food a smoky taste( Food and Wine) . A characteristic seasoning for the region is a green herb and oil based marinade which imparts a flavor profile which is quintessentially Caribbean in character. The native tribes also developed methods of cooking their culinary dishes which are still used today on the islands and in the many Caribbean restaurants and at Caribbean festivals in New York City. The Caribs and Taino were pioneers of using pepper and other spices and cooking in clay pots -pepper pot stew ( The Caribbean Current). Other foods native to the Caribbean are allspice ( Pimento) which is used heavily in the Jerk cooking. In the style of Jamaican cuisine - cassava ( manioc) an important source of starch is often ground into flour for tapioca, boiled, fried, steamed like potatoes and served a syrupy base for sauces and even distilled to flavor beverages, annatto which is a deep orange-red colored spice and whose seeds are ground into pastes to flavor and color meats and potatoes, plantains that look like bananas but have green or black skins and are much lower in sugar and are eaten like vegetables and guavas which are fruit and used in drinks and sauces and desserts. (Whitesel). Tribes called their healthy ingredients “ soul foods” ( Caribbean Current). Taino tribe incorporated meat, fish and seafood in their soul food.
The Spanish influence starting in the 16th century is important to the Caribbean cuisine that New York City enjoys today. The Spanish culture has influenced food in Puerto Rico , Jamaica and Cuba (History of Caribbean), and many restaurants in the city prepare food from these islands. Paella and Zarzuela, both traditional Spanish dishes, are commonly prepared in the Caribbean. There are many dishes on the Spanish-speaking islands which include rice and shellfish variations of barbecued pork, chicken, and fish are roasted over open fires called barbacoa Jerk, a popular method of barbecuing well-seasoned pork, chicken and fish, is now a thriving fast-food industry in Jamaica and has had an impact in New York City. Caribbean Escovitch is a tangy dish of Spanish origin. Spanish Jews first introduced Esoveitch fish which is a vinegary dish which is very popular in New York City today( Pimento) . Before Spain lost large sections of the Caribbean to England in 1655 and France in 1664 the Portuguese brought in Oranges, limes, mangoes adding new flavors(Caribbean Current).
The French and the English influenced Caribbean cuisine and their influence is very evident in both the cuisine of the city restaurants and the festivals of New York. French cooking methods and styles are evident on the Caribbean islands of St. Martin, Martinique, and Guadeloupe. There is a fusion with French Creole cooking which is a term first used to describe the people or foods of mixed French and African traditions.The fusions with Creole cooking is characterized by the use of local ingredients, including herbs, meats, poultry, fish, and shellfish that are cooked with various tropical fruits as well as vegetables, rice, tomatoes, sweet peppers, and onions. During the 17th century the English Influenced food on Jamaica - Jamaican patty ( turnover filled with spicy meat) ( Pimento). The Caribbean Black Cake is a derivative of English Christmas pudding. The English successfully imported and grew a great variety of vegetables, herbs, and fruit trees as well as garlic. They are responsible for introducing potatoes, bacon and eggs, roast beef, pancakes, sponge cakes, rice pudding, kidney pie, Irish stew, Yorkshire pudding, smoked herring, and hot cross buns to Caribbean cuisine. Like New York City which is a mixture of many different cultures and traditions which combine to create what we know as “The BIg Apple”. Caribbean cuisine is a fusion of many many various cuisines which has a flavor of its own.
A final addition to Caribbean menus come from three different continents - Africa, Asia and South America. African slaves brought to the Caribbean to work in the sugarcane fields brought their own distinct flavors.During the Early 1600’s African people brought food from West Africa such as okra, pigeon,peas, plantains, callaloo, taro, breadfruit, and ackee (Food and Wine). The Jerk cooking was introduced by escaped African slaves who cooked wild boars without smoke in order to keep their hiding places a secret. The Coromantee Tribe of West Africa created a jerk marinade made up of lemon juice, onion, brown sugar, cinnamon, allspice /pimento, black pepe, thyme soy sauce, cayenne pepper. This fusion of African cooking techniques and spices with Caribbean ingredients makes the Island’s food very unique
When the slave trade was outlawed, the Chinese and Indian populations migrated to the Caribbean in the mid 1800’s. Many indentured servants were imported from Asia and India.The Chinese brought Cantonese cooking and ingredients such as rice, mustard, chili peppers ( Food and Wine).This broadened the culinary scope of the Caribbean to include Indonesian foods, curries, and other spices not yet introduced to the islands. Other culinary influences were the use of Chinese vegetables and the popularity of the roti, a flat Indian bread ( Caribbean Current). Today rice is often combined with a variety of legumes, which are staples of the island’s cuisine. In addition, the people from Mexico and South America brought Potatoes, passion fruit, papaya, avocado, chayote and cocoa. All of these new ingredients brought new and flavorful changes to the cuisine of the Caribbean and therefore New York City’s restaurants, again reflecting the multicultural nature of the City.
The Caribbean population and their cuisine have made a tremendous impact on New York City. First,Caribbean labor followed the flow of investment capital in the United States. Wherever American construction projects were taking place Caribbean workers followed, and the 1965, Immigration Act brought a huge number of Caribbeans both working and middle class to New York City ( Wilson) Most of the people were from Spanish speaking Caribbean islands.The Dominicans from the Dominican Republic are the largest migrant group ( Wilson) . New York City is considered the Northern capital of the Caribbean ( Solnit 79) where Caribbean culture and food flourishes. New York City is where Caribbeans from all the different islands interact and identify with each other which is something they would not do if they had remained on their island homes ( Solnit 79) blending their particular island’s cuisine to create a fusion.
⅓ of the African Caribbean population that migrated ended up populating a few Brooklyn neighborhoods ( Solnit 80). In addition, The Caribbean people celebrate in Brooklyn with the West Indian Day parade and on Labor Day to celebrate Carnival with lots of Caribbean food. (Solnit 80). Caribbean backgammon and dominoes at folding tables usually has players sitting in front of Caribbean grocery stores that line Church Avenue in Flatbush and so many other NYC sidewalks in the summer ( Solnit 80). Finally, the food itself has made a major impact on the city. Caribbean goat stew has been chosen as the official national dish of Montserrat and is also one of the signature dishes of St. Kitts and Nevis and other New York City Caribbean restaurants. Caribbean restaurants are everywhere in the city: Fusion East , Miss Lily’s , Glady’s, Cecil in Harlem ( Wilson) Alexander Smalls, the owner of Cecil’s in Harlem has said, “ It’s bold and full -flavored and aromatic and textured food ( Fusion East), Adam Schop, chef at Miss. Lily’s pointed out that “ there are many greenmarket stands throughout the city where you can find Caribbean ingredients such as hoto Grenadas and sweet aji dulces” ( Wilson). Furthermore, Samuel Branch a private chef remarked, “ I want to be a part of the new Caribbean food movement” ( Fusion East)
Jeremy Merrin, owner of three Havana Central restaurants in the city, pointed out “ This fusion was the beginning of modern Caribbean food, and is similar in spirit to the origins of soul food on the North American mainland” ( Fusion East). Dessert is a perfect way to end this exploration of Caribbean cuisine and piragua, which originated in Puerto Rico, can be found all over the city, especially in the hot days of summer. These shaved ice with flavored syrup treats are sold throughout the city, and kids and adults alike gather around the trucks and carts that arrive bearing many different flavors of syrup. This ice cold treat has become a staple of new York City summertime.
In conclusion, the Caribbean covers 1.06 million square miles and ranges between North America and South America. There are many different cultures and communities that have come together to create the culinary goodness of New York’s Caribbean "fusion" food. Caribbean culture and cuisine has been incorporated and embraced into the the lives of the people of New York City Caribbean culture has historically been influenced by that of African, European, Amerindian, and Asian traditions which influenced Caribbean culture and this influence is very evident in both the cuisine of the city restaurants and the festivals of New York.
The Caribbean covers 1.06 million square miles and ranges between North and South America.The Caribbean Islands make up an enormous archipelago located in the Caribbean Sea separated into a few different regions: the Lucayan Archipelago, the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles and the ABC Islands. There are thirteen sovereign states and seventeen dependent territories within this region. Each island and region is distinct from the others and the populations and traditions do not mix very much while the people tend to live on their own home territories. The islands have been fought over and occupied by several European countries and each of these has contributed to the culture and cuisine of the Caribbean. There are a variety of European languages spoken by the populations of the various islands; English, Spanish, French, Dutch and Antillean creole are the predominant languages. ( Food and Wine)
Caribbean culture and cuisine has been incorporated and embraced into the the lives of the people of New York City, and Caribbean culture has historically been influenced by that of African, European, and Amerindian, and Asian traditions. It has also been strongly influenced linguistically, economically, and culturally by its neighboring country the United States, and visa versa ; indeed New York City and Florida have been affected by the Caribbean culture dramatically. There are over 22 million Caribbeans in the United States and New York City ‘s population is 25% Caribbean with 5 million from the islands in the New York city area ( Impact) Caribbean people are more socio-economically mobile than almost any other immigrant group in the US ( Impact). They also have an interest in entrepreneurship which is greater than any other immigrant people( Impact). Caribbean culture in the United States is seen in music, literature culinary cuisine, politics and social events; all of which are representative of the Caribbean people in powerful ways. A great example of political involvement is seen in Shirley Chisholm and Colin Powell. In the entertainment world Harry Belafonte and Sidney Poitier are well known entertainers. The Civil Rights Movement had help from influential people such as Marcus Garvey, Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael) ( Wilson 301). Caribbean cuisine made its way into mainstream companies like Golden Krust and Caribbean Food Delights which are million dollar companies ( Wilson 295). Scattered all over the city are Caribbean restaurants which are very popular. The multicultural and multiethnic backgrounds have not been a deterrent to being a visible force in most aspects of New York and United States society.
There have been multinational contributions throughout history to what is now considered Caribbean cuisine. The islands have been fought over and colonized by several European countries and each new culture added their culinary traditions to form what we know as Caribbean cuisine ( Impact). The foods and spices of the 7,000 Caribbean islands represent a melting pot of cultures and cooking methods. Many foods and spices associated with the region were actually introduced hundreds of years ago by explorers from Spain, France England, Africa China and India,. ( The Caribbean Current) First, native inhabitants of the Caribbean Islands can be traced back to 650 AD ( Pimento)The Native inhabitants were primarily the Arawaks who inhabited Dominica, Jamaica and the Orinoco River Valley, the Tainos who resided on Haiti and Puerto Rico, and the Caribs who lived on several neighboring islands. Many of the ingredients used in Caribbean cuisine are both native to the islands and imported by the various cultures which invaded the area. Native to the islands were chili peppers to spice their food and taro root, corn, yams, cassava and peanuts ( Food and Wine). Guavas, pineapple, black-eye peas and lima beans grew wild ( Food and Wine). Arawaks began the technique of barbecue, giving food a smoky taste( Food and Wine) . A characteristic seasoning for the region is a green herb and oil based marinade which imparts a flavor profile which is quintessentially Caribbean in character. The native tribes also developed methods of cooking their culinary dishes which are still used today on the islands and in the many Caribbean restaurants and at Caribbean festivals in New York City. The Caribs and Taino were pioneers of using pepper and other spices and cooking in clay pots -pepper pot stew ( The Caribbean Current). Other foods native to the Caribbean are allspice ( Pimento) which is used heavily in the Jerk cooking. In the style of Jamaican cuisine - cassava ( manioc) an important source of starch is often ground into flour for tapioca, boiled, fried, steamed like potatoes and served a syrupy base for sauces and even distilled to flavor beverages, annatto which is a deep orange-red colored spice and whose seeds are ground into pastes to flavor and color meats and potatoes, plantains that look like bananas but have green or black skins and are much lower in sugar and are eaten like vegetables and guavas which are fruit and used in drinks and sauces and desserts. (Whitesel). Tribes called their healthy ingredients “ soul foods” ( Caribbean Current). Taino tribe incorporated meat, fish and seafood in their soul food.
The Spanish influence starting in the 16th century is important to the Caribbean cuisine that New York City enjoys today. The Spanish culture has influenced food in Puerto Rico , Jamaica and Cuba (History of Caribbean), and many restaurants in the city prepare food from these islands. Paella and Zarzuela, both traditional Spanish dishes, are commonly prepared in the Caribbean. There are many dishes on the Spanish-speaking islands which include rice and shellfish variations of barbecued pork, chicken, and fish are roasted over open fires called barbacoa Jerk, a popular method of barbecuing well-seasoned pork, chicken and fish, is now a thriving fast-food industry in Jamaica and has had an impact in New York City. Caribbean Escovitch is a tangy dish of Spanish origin. Spanish Jews first introduced Esoveitch fish which is a vinegary dish which is very popular in New York City today( Pimento) . Before Spain lost large sections of the Caribbean to England in 1655 and France in 1664 the Portuguese brought in Oranges, limes, mangoes adding new flavors(Caribbean Current).
The French and the English influenced Caribbean cuisine and their influence is very evident in both the cuisine of the city restaurants and the festivals of New York. French cooking methods and styles are evident on the Caribbean islands of St. Martin, Martinique, and Guadeloupe. There is a fusion with French Creole cooking which is a term first used to describe the people or foods of mixed French and African traditions.The fusions with Creole cooking is characterized by the use of local ingredients, including herbs, meats, poultry, fish, and shellfish that are cooked with various tropical fruits as well as vegetables, rice, tomatoes, sweet peppers, and onions. During the 17th century the English Influenced food on Jamaica - Jamaican patty ( turnover filled with spicy meat) ( Pimento). The Caribbean Black Cake is a derivative of English Christmas pudding. The English successfully imported and grew a great variety of vegetables, herbs, and fruit trees as well as garlic. They are responsible for introducing potatoes, bacon and eggs, roast beef, pancakes, sponge cakes, rice pudding, kidney pie, Irish stew, Yorkshire pudding, smoked herring, and hot cross buns to Caribbean cuisine. Like New York City which is a mixture of many different cultures and traditions which combine to create what we know as “The BIg Apple”. Caribbean cuisine is a fusion of many many various cuisines which has a flavor of its own.
A final addition to Caribbean menus come from three different continents - Africa, Asia and South America. African slaves brought to the Caribbean to work in the sugarcane fields brought their own distinct flavors.During the Early 1600’s African people brought food from West Africa such as okra, pigeon,peas, plantains, callaloo, taro, breadfruit, and ackee (Food and Wine). The Jerk cooking was introduced by escaped African slaves who cooked wild boars without smoke in order to keep their hiding places a secret. The Coromantee Tribe of West Africa created a jerk marinade made up of lemon juice, onion, brown sugar, cinnamon, allspice /pimento, black pepe, thyme soy sauce, cayenne pepper. This fusion of African cooking techniques and spices with Caribbean ingredients makes the Island’s food very unique
When the slave trade was outlawed, the Chinese and Indian populations migrated to the Caribbean in the mid 1800’s. Many indentured servants were imported from Asia and India.The Chinese brought Cantonese cooking and ingredients such as rice, mustard, chili peppers ( Food and Wine).This broadened the culinary scope of the Caribbean to include Indonesian foods, curries, and other spices not yet introduced to the islands. Other culinary influences were the use of Chinese vegetables and the popularity of the roti, a flat Indian bread ( Caribbean Current). Today rice is often combined with a variety of legumes, which are staples of the island’s cuisine. In addition, the people from Mexico and South America brought Potatoes, passion fruit, papaya, avocado, chayote and cocoa. All of these new ingredients brought new and flavorful changes to the cuisine of the Caribbean and therefore New York City’s restaurants, again reflecting the multicultural nature of the City.
The Caribbean population and their cuisine have made a tremendous impact on New York City. First,Caribbean labor followed the flow of investment capital in the United States. Wherever American construction projects were taking place Caribbean workers followed, and the 1965, Immigration Act brought a huge number of Caribbeans both working and middle class to New York City ( Wilson) Most of the people were from Spanish speaking Caribbean islands.The Dominicans from the Dominican Republic are the largest migrant group ( Wilson) . New York City is considered the Northern capital of the Caribbean ( Solnit 79) where Caribbean culture and food flourishes. New York City is where Caribbeans from all the different islands interact and identify with each other which is something they would not do if they had remained on their island homes ( Solnit 79) blending their particular island’s cuisine to create a fusion.
⅓ of the African Caribbean population that migrated ended up populating a few Brooklyn neighborhoods ( Solnit 80). In addition, The Caribbean people celebrate in Brooklyn with the West Indian Day parade and on Labor Day to celebrate Carnival with lots of Caribbean food. (Solnit 80). Caribbean backgammon and dominoes at folding tables usually has players sitting in front of Caribbean grocery stores that line Church Avenue in Flatbush and so many other NYC sidewalks in the summer ( Solnit 80). Finally, the food itself has made a major impact on the city. Caribbean goat stew has been chosen as the official national dish of Montserrat and is also one of the signature dishes of St. Kitts and Nevis and other New York City Caribbean restaurants. Caribbean restaurants are everywhere in the city: Fusion East , Miss Lily’s , Glady’s, Cecil in Harlem ( Wilson) Alexander Smalls, the owner of Cecil’s in Harlem has said, “ It’s bold and full -flavored and aromatic and textured food ( Fusion East), Adam Schop, chef at Miss. Lily’s pointed out that “ there are many greenmarket stands throughout the city where you can find Caribbean ingredients such as hoto Grenadas and sweet aji dulces” ( Wilson). Furthermore, Samuel Branch a private chef remarked, “ I want to be a part of the new Caribbean food movement” ( Fusion East)
Jeremy Merrin, owner of three Havana Central restaurants in the city, pointed out “ This fusion was the beginning of modern Caribbean food, and is similar in spirit to the origins of soul food on the North American mainland” ( Fusion East). Dessert is a perfect way to end this exploration of Caribbean cuisine and piragua, which originated in Puerto Rico, can be found all over the city, especially in the hot days of summer. These shaved ice with flavored syrup treats are sold throughout the city, and kids and adults alike gather around the trucks and carts that arrive bearing many different flavors of syrup. This ice cold treat has become a staple of new York City summertime.
In conclusion, the Caribbean covers 1.06 million square miles and ranges between North America and South America. There are many different cultures and communities that have come together to create the culinary goodness of New York’s Caribbean "fusion" food. Caribbean culture and cuisine has been incorporated and embraced into the the lives of the people of New York City Caribbean culture has historically been influenced by that of African, European, Amerindian, and Asian traditions which influenced Caribbean culture and this influence is very evident in both the cuisine of the city restaurants and the festivals of New York.
Work Cited
"Caribbean Cuisine – a Cultural Influence." Thecaribbeancurrent.com. The Caribbean Current, 5 Mar. 2012. Web. 04 Feb. 2017.
"HIstory of Caribbean Food « Pimento.com." My Pimento com. Restaurant Caribbean Pimento, 2017. Web. 04 Feb. 2017.
2016. “The Caribbean: Background & influences.” Food and Wine Global Distribution. 1994.
Website. 4 Feb. 2017.
"The Caribbean." Center for Foods of the Americas. Culinary Institute of America, 2017. Web. 4 Feb. 2017.
"History of the Caribbean west indies”, 15 Nov. 2012. Web. 5 Feb. 2017. TextHistories.asp?groupid=232&HistoryID=aa23>rack=pthc>.
Solnit, Rebecca, and Joshua Jelly-Schapiro. Nonstop Metropolis: A New York City Atlas. Oakland, CA: U of California, 2016. Print.
Wilson, Basil. "Caribbean Immigrants in New York City and the Rise of a Black Middle Class in Southeast Queens” 12.1 (2009): 289-312. Proquest. City University of New York, 12 Dec. 2009. Web. 4 Feb. 2017._Site_Assets/PDF/BASIL-WILSON%20-%20Caribbean%20Immigrants.pdf>.
Whitesel, Todd. "What Foods & Spices Are Native to the Caribbean?" USA Today. Gannett Satellite Information Network, n.d. Web. 04 Feb. 2017.
l
"NYC's Fusion East Explains the Origins of Caribbean Food - Fusion East - Brooklyn." NYC's Fusion East Explains the Origins of Caribbean Food - Fusion East - Brooklyn | NearSay. Near Say, 7 Sept. 2016. Web. 5 Feb. 2017.
"Caribbean Cuisine – a Cultural Influence." Thecaribbeancurrent.com. The Caribbean Current, 5 Mar. 2012. Web. 04 Feb. 2017.
"HIstory of Caribbean Food « Pimento.com." My Pimento com. Restaurant Caribbean Pimento, 2017. Web. 04 Feb. 2017.
2016. “The Caribbean: Background & influences.” Food and Wine Global Distribution. 1994.
Website. 4 Feb. 2017.
"The Caribbean." Center for Foods of the Americas. Culinary Institute of America, 2017. Web. 4 Feb. 2017.
"History of the Caribbean west indies”, 15 Nov. 2012. Web. 5 Feb. 2017. TextHistories.asp?groupid=232&HistoryID=aa23>rack=pthc>.
Solnit, Rebecca, and Joshua Jelly-Schapiro. Nonstop Metropolis: A New York City Atlas. Oakland, CA: U of California, 2016. Print.
Wilson, Basil. "Caribbean Immigrants in New York City and the Rise of a Black Middle Class in Southeast Queens” 12.1 (2009): 289-312. Proquest. City University of New York, 12 Dec. 2009. Web. 4 Feb. 2017._Site_Assets/PDF/BASIL-WILSON%20-%20Caribbean%20Immigrants.pdf>.
Whitesel, Todd. "What Foods & Spices Are Native to the Caribbean?" USA Today. Gannett Satellite Information Network, n.d. Web. 04 Feb. 2017.
l
"NYC's Fusion East Explains the Origins of Caribbean Food - Fusion East - Brooklyn." NYC's Fusion East Explains the Origins of Caribbean Food - Fusion East - Brooklyn | NearSay. Near Say, 7 Sept. 2016. Web. 5 Feb. 2017.